Magic of Marinades

Magic of Marinades

By Donna Berry 
Contributing Editor

The “For Dummies” reference series sums up the magic of marinades in two simple concepts: taste and tenderness. For a more-romantic description, try this: Marinades discreetly liven up meat, poultry and seafood by infusing them with flavor and texture sensations that are released upon consumption.

It’s precisely this latter description that’s enticing Americans to explore the myriad flavorful packaged marinades and pre-marinated main courses stocked by retailers. Chicken breast for dinner every night of the week is no longer doldrums; it’s regional and ethnic cuisine when marinated and accompanied by an innovative side dish or two.

“Regardless of when the marinade is added—at the processing plant or in the kitchen—‘true’ marinades work their magic before the food is cooked,” says Rodger Jonas, food manager, P.L. Thomas & Co., Morristown, NJ. “And, that magic is discreet, as the person who finally enjoys the marinated food sees minimum or no remains of the flavorful liquid that was either directly added to the food or that the food was soaked in.”

As Jonas says, marinades can be added to foods at the processing plant, prior to packaging, or in the kitchen—home or foodservice. The goal of these two types of marinades—industrial and commercial—vary in their objectives: the primary purpose of most industrial marinades is to retain moisture and tenderize; adding flavor is secondary. With commercial products, it’s all about flavor.

Today, certain industrial marinades are not even classified as such. They are described as brines that extend meat, poultry and seafood by binding water. This also tenderizes the products, and sometimes adds a bit of flavor. But, when you say “marinade” to a consumer, they think “flavor.”

Do it yourself 

Commercially available marinades—for retail or foodservice—layer on flavor, transforming ordinary meat, poultry and seafood into culinary sensations. The food is immersed in the marinade, where it either marinates, or is tumbled, as in the case of some foodservice establishments. Consumers also “tumble” the product by soaking it in a zipper-style plastic bag and rotating it occasionally. Recently, Heinz North America, Pittsburgh, began marketing its Jack Daniel’s® line of liquid marinades in such a zipper bag. The patent-pending EZ Marinader™ contains enough marinade—12 oz. per package—to effectively flavor up to 3 lbs. of food. However they’re applied, marinades serve as topical applications of intense, highly concentrated, low-viscosity liquid that penetrates the food. The marinade can also act as a seal, preventing moisture from escaping during cooking over a barbecue, grill or in an oven. Some marinades are designed to provide cling so herbs and spices adhere to the food once removed from the marinade.

The term “marinade” lacks a standard of identity; thus, manufacturers have few limits when tossing ingredients together and selling a flavor infusion. “Basically, if it’s a GRAS ingredient, it can be used to make a bottled or packaged marinade,” says Jonas.

There is some science behind what makes a quality marinade. For starters, liquid marinades contain one or more acidulants, which includes cooking wine, vinegar and/or fruit juices. These assist with tenderizing the food by softening the surface muscle tissue of tough cuts of meat. They also impart desirable flavor, which, again, is what commercial marinades are all about.

They can also contain some oil in order to lubricate the food. This locks in moisture and protects the marinated food during cooking. Any oil can be used, and the percentage varies, depending on what the marinade is intended for. For example, the leaner the food, the better it does in a marinade with a fairly high concentration of oil. Thus, a marinade intended for chicken breast may be formulated to contain more oil than one intended for chicken wings, since the latter is a concentrated source of fat due to the large volume of skin surface area.

After the oil and vinegar 

The obviously critical component of commercial marinades is the blend of fairly intense, concentrated flavorants such as herbs, seasonings, grated fruit peel and the like.

When designing a marinade, think “the whiter, the lighter.” In other words, white meats, such as chicken and pork, should have milder flavor treatments than darker meats, such as beef. Thus, pork and poultry marinades are typically based on white-wine vinegar, whereas a deep-red burgundy complements beef. Chicken and other poultry go well with a variety of citrus fruit juices, such as cranberry, orange and pineapple. Product designers frequently use thicker and heavier fruit pastes and purées, such as those from tomatoes, raisins and even bananas, as part of the base for steak marinades.

“Pomegranate, the up-and-coming fruit ingredient, complements the citrus tang of lime. Together, these fruity flavors provide lamb chops with a unique twist,” says Larry Russell, senior applications scientist, meat and poultry, Kerry Ingredients—Kerry Savory Ingredients, Waukesha, WI. “We are having success with flavor profiles typical of Asia, India and Morocco. In general, marinades that fall within the Middle Eastern flavor profile are generating a lot of interest.” Teriyaki is one such flavor profile, and is likely one of the original bottled marinades. It is based on soy sauce, which is compatible with a wide range of flavors. Thus, Asian-inspired condiments have become mainstays for almost all marinade manufacturers.

Although popular as a base, soy sauce can also enhance flavors in a variety of non-Asian liquid marinades. Used at levels of 1% to 5%, the amino acids in soy sauce can boost the flavor of other ingredients without contributing any identifiable soy-sauce flavor. There’s even a dry form of soy sauce for powdered marinade mixes.

Soy sauce consists of a combination of ingredients itself, a combination recognized for intensifying some flavors, while keeping others balanced. Based on hydrolyzed soy protein, corn syrup, salt and water—and sometimes wheat—soy sauce is savory yet sweet, with a bit of acidity. Soy sauce particularly complements the flavors of ginger, sesame, scallions and garlic. For some kick, south-of-the-border peppers fuse nicely with the umami flavors of soy sauce.

Don’t forget the hot and spicy trend. “Frank’s® RedHot® sauces provide kick to all types of marinades,” says Kelly Corcoran, corporate chef, French’s Flavor Ingredients, Springfield, MO. “A zesty Italian marinade for chicken is readily made using about 85% of either the Original RedHot or Hotter RedHot sauces, combined with 9% olive oil and 6% dried Italian seasonings, such as basil, garlic, oregano and thyme.” The sauces already contain the necessary vinegar and salt, and even some flavors.

All of the company’s liquid flavors are available in spray-dried form for reconstituting in a liquid marinade base, according to Kent Caplinger, director, ingredients, French’s Flavor Ingredients.

“The Hotter RedHot sauce is made using select aged cayenne peppers, which produce a rich, red, flavorful hot sauce “very similar to the original version says Corcoran. “It has outstanding flavor and aroma, but with twice the heat level. The key is that it does not ‘burn’ out other flavors when used as an ingredient in marinades.”

Dijon-style mustards work well with marinades designed for pork and fish. Corcoran recommends starting with around 55% prepared Dijon mustard, combined with 23% lemon juice, 10% olive oil and 5% granulated sugar. “The remaining 6% is a combination of herbs and seasonings, to achieve the desired taste,” she says. “For a Mediterranean profile, add fennel, garlic, rosemary and some grated orange rind.”

Grated citrus peel is rich in aromatic oil and can be used quite liberally in marinades. And garlic—whole, minced or pressed—can improve many savory marinades.

Honey, molasses, brown sugar, granulated sugar and high fructose corn syrup (HFCS) add sweetness to marinades while adding solids that contribute to viscosity. They also provide a controllable substrate for browning through the Maillard reaction, which is desirable, particularly when grilling meat or poultry.

Soy sauce assists with the Maillard reaction, which occurs primarily on the surface of the cooked food. The reaction takes place when amino acids— either in the marinade or from the food being cooked—interact with the reducing sugars in the marinade under the controlled high temperatures of cooking. This results in a desirable brown color and flavor that improves the food’s overall savory profile.

In fact, many packaged liquid marinades rely on HFCS and soy sauce to help ensure the Maillard reaction will occur. Furthermore, HFCS helps keep moisture locked into the food during cooking. This prevents it from drying out and getting burnt and crusty. HFCS also blends readily with other ingredients and is relatively inexpensive when compared to most other sweeteners and liquid ingredients, excluding water.

Popping the cork 

Because vinegar is the acidulant of choice for many marinades, it is important to understand that all vinegars are not created equal. For starters, the word vinegar comes from the French vin aigre, which translates as “tart wine.”

Vinegar can be made from any fruit, or from any material containing sugar, by two distinct biological processes. The first is alcoholic fermentation, which occurs when yeasts change natural sugars to alcohol under controlled conditions. In the second process, bacteria convert the alcohol portion to acid. This acetic fermentation forms the vinegar. Thus, bacterial fermentation can turn the alcohol in wine into acetic acid. Many vinegars are made from naturally fermented wines or—in the old days—those that had turned sour by accident.

White-wine vinegar begins with any one of many varietals of white wine and tend to be sweeter, lighter and smoother than red-wine vinegars, which, as the name suggests, come from red wine. Red-wine vinegars have a fuller body with just a touch of sweetness. Balsamic vinegar starts from a sweet wine, and aging in barrels yields intense aromatics, a reddish- brown color and a flavor that is quite acidic, yet finishes sweet.

Vinegars can also be made from ingredients such as cider or malt. Cider vinegar comes from apples, which lends a slightly fruity flavor to the vinegar. This vinegar has a strong, acidic bite. Malt vinegar is made from malted barley. It possesses a golden color with a clean, slightly fruity aroma.

“One of the trends we are seeing, especially in Asian-style marinades, is the use of rice-wine vinegar instead of standard white distilled vinegar,” says Jim Polansky, national sales manager, Todhunter Foods & Monarch Wine Co., West Palm Beach, FL. Even within the category of rice-wine vinegar there are flavor profile differences. For example, he notes that Japanese rice-wine vinegar is mellower and smoother than the Chinese variety, which is more assertive and sharp.

“In addition, with the ‘fusion of flavors’ trend going on in today’s marketplace, we encourage formulators to think outside of the old adage that white wine is for chicken and red is for beef,” adds Polansky. “Furthermore, wines aren’t the only marinade-friendly selections from the bar. Whiskey and tequila are becoming increasingly popular.”

Designers sometimes use real wine, or actually a product somewhere between drinkable wine and vinegar, in order to flag a claim, such as “made with real Burgundy.” These wine ingredients are just that: ingredients. They resemble the real thing and can be labeled as such. Manufacturers render these ingredients non-drinkable through denaturation, which, in this case, is through the addition of ingredients such as garlic, onion or salt. Denatured liquors are exempt from state and federal taxes. “Marinades made with denatured wines have a true wine flavor and can be described as being made with real wine,” says Polansky.

Distilled spirits also come in denatured forms. “Todhunter also provides reduced wines and distilled spirits. A computer-controlled, time-temperature process produces these 10-fold reductions, resulting in a consistent flavor profile,” says Polansky. “As a 10-fold natural reduction, these ingredients provide 10 times more flavor than the non-reduced product. The savings on freight and storage is a real perk. And because the reductions contain less than 0.5% alcohol by volume, they are not taxed, and the alcohol does not need to be declared on ingredient labels.”

From a functional perspective, however, wine and spirit reductions don’t offer the same tenderizing acidity as their denatured counterparts, cautions Polanksy. “But their high Brix brings a flavor bonus. In fact, the wine reductions almost have a caramelized quality, because their flavor chemistry has changed from heating over time,” he says. “It’s a flavor only made possible through the reduction process.”

Other tricks of the trade 

Designing a packaged liquid marinade is not difficult. However, today’s convenience-craving consumer appreciates having all the ingredients already thrown together, which is why the burgeoning condiment aisle is filling up with more marinades.

The base ingredients are pretty straightforward, except for a few tricks marinade manufacturers have learned through the years. The first one has been discussed—the use of denatured or reduced wines or distilled spirits. Another trick is using industrial ingredients with specific functionalities, such as those that build viscosity, extend shelf life and retain moisture.

As mentioned, highly viscous ingredients such as molasses, honey and HFCS help develop a marinade’s viscosity. In addition, manufacturers often include xanthan gum, as it is able to perform beyond the limits of many other hydrocolloids. “When poured, mixed or pumped, a marinade made with xanthan gum immediately shows an appreciable decrease in viscosity, making it easy to process,” says Mar Nieto, technical service director, TIC Gums, Inc., Belcamp, MD. “When shear force is removed, viscosity immediately reverts to its original level. This is what is meant by xanthan being pseudoplastic.”

Xanthan gum is also heat-resistant, so it does not change during marinade processing and packaging. This natural, high-molecular-weight polysaccharide provides stabilization, suspension and thickness. It interacts constructively with other ingredients used in marinades, including oil, vinegar and modified food starch, and also with guar gum, another galactomannan, to provide synergistic viscosity increases.

“When xanthan gum reassociates after shear is removed, it suspends any particulates or immobilizes oil droplets in the marinade,” adds Nieto. “At the right usage level, the ability of xanthan gum to perform as a long-lasting, highly effective stabilizer that holds other marinade ingredients together is valuable to manufacturers who want to offer consistent products with no risk of separation or sedimentation.”

One of the best parts is that a little goes a long way. In fact, xanthan gum is one of the most-efficient hydrocolloids in marinades, which is why practically every packaged liquid marinade includes it. It’s also used in dry marinades, as powdered xanthan gum rapidly and effectively hydrates. In liquid marinades, 0.05% to 0.50% xanthan gum improves the marinade’s cling and moisture control, while tolerating both acid and salt. In drymarinade mixes, 0.5% to 1.5% xanthan gum can be added.

To manufacture a teriyaki marinade, a processor starts by dry blending 1 part xanthan gum with 10 parts sugar, then hydrates the blend with water, using high shear for about 10 minutes. The other liquid ingredients, which likely include soy sauce (about 45%), rice-wine vinegar (about 7%) and rice wine (about 20%), are mixed together and stirred into the wellblended gum solution until the mixture is smooth. Blended flavorants (1% to 2% of final formulation) are added near the end of processing, with sufficient time allowed for thorough dispersal prior to packaging. The xanthan gum keeps any particulate flavorants in suspension and helps them cling to the marinated product.

Oftentimes, modified starch in a prepared marinade formulation provides a little extra stabilization assurance. But starches can mask flavor, which, in a marinade that has the primary purpose of providing flavor, is not desirable. However, gums and starches each have their strengths, and when used together, they often can work synergistically to build body and stabilize the marinade, depending on the other ingredients present.

Starches vary in their functionality, so starch selection depends greatly on the desired viscosity and texture of the final marinade. For example, a waxy corn starch will be long and flowable, while a dent corn starch is shorter. Potato starch offers high viscosity with a short texture, while tapioca starch provides bland flavor. There is no single solution to developing viscosity or stabilizing a marinade, which is why it is important to work closely with a stabilizer supplier to determine the right combination and level of viscosity-building ingredients.

Directions to follow 

When determining the flavor potency of a marinade, keep in mind that usage levels for liquid marinades range from 10% to 15% of the weight of the meat, poultry or seafood. Because the flavors are infused throughout the product, they are much more subtle than in the concentrated liquid product.

A marinade manufacturer’s application lab also should conduct thorough testing to ensure effective absorption of the marinade—so that it diffuses throughout the meat, poultry or seafood. The time needed for successful marinating depends on the size and texture of the marinated product, since both of these factors govern how quickly the marinade diffuses throughout the entire food.

Perishable main courses are marinated in the refrigerator for microbiological safety reasons. However, the best temperature for the marinade can vary. A dry mix might require hydration with warm or boiling water. A bottled product might be best applied at room temperature.

For food-safety reasons, direct consumers to discard used marinade after the food is done soaking. If basting during cooking is desired, advise use of fresh marinade. In general, a 16-oz. bottle of marinade is enough for one or two main courses, depending on how much food is prepared. Typically, the cook needs 1 to 2 cups of marinade for every 1.5 to 2.0 lbs. of food. There has to be enough marinade to completely surround the food.

Marinating times for beef, chicken and pork range from 30 minutes to 12 hours—or overnight. For beef, the marination time can vary, depending on the tenderness of the cut. More delicate foods such as fish may require a shorter marinating time, usually 30 to 60 minutes.

Formulating safety into the bottle 

Even with consumers instructed to marinate food at refrigerated temperatures to ensure safety, along with discarding used marinade, manufacturers must take the cautionary steps to formulate and process the marinade to render it free of pathogens and inhibit microbial growth through shelf life. During processing and packaging, microbial growth is inhibited by acid and temperature. Manufacturers rely on the principal that an acidic marinade (below pH 4.6) can be cooked and filled at a lower temperature than a low-acid product (above pH 4.6).

Even with proper processing parameters, designers often include one or more ingredients with known antimicrobial effects. For example, sodium benzoate is frequently used and identified on product labels as a preservative. Its effectiveness increases with decreased pH. Thus, sodium benzoate works best in high-acid products—those in the 2.5 to 4.0 pH range. At pH 4.0, usage is about 0.10%—the maximum allowable— while at pH 3.0, a level of 0.05% achieves the same antimicrobial effect. Above pH 4.5, sodium benzoate loses its effectiveness. Higher-pH products call for benzoic acid.

Another commonly used preservative, potassium sorbate, is the potassium salt of sorbic acid. Sorbic acid by itself acts as an extremely effective antimicrobial agent. Unfortunately, it is not very soluble in water, and thus is not used in acid form in liquid marinades. Instead, other salts of sorbic acid, including sodium sorbate and calcium sorbate, are also often used. Potassium sorbate remains effective up to pH 6.5, and, like sodium benzoate, effectiveness increases as pH decreases. The addition of sodium benzoate and/or potassium sorbate raises the pH of a product by as little as 0.1 to 0.5, depending on the amount of preservative added, the pH and the type of product. In some cases, the marinade might require additional pH adjustments to ensure safety. 

Some flavorings might do double duty. “Rosemary extract is also a very effective antimicrobial,” says Jonas. “It offers a few extras, too. For example, rosemary extract has been shown to fix the color of muscle foods. At the same time, it prevents warmed-over flavor.”

In the plant 

Marinating at the industrial level is very different than what is done in a cook’s kitchen. Meat scientists think of marinades as a means to alter protein structures, which alters the protein’s water-binding abilities, adds flavor and, perhaps most importantly, increases yield—and the bottom line.

At the industrial level, marinating is often referred to as brining. To meat, poultry and seafood processors, marinades are brine solutions injected or vacuum-tumbled into the product. Brine is simply water saturated with dissolved salt that serves the dual purpose of extending the food through the addition of water, and making the meat, poultry or seafood moist and juicy.

Industrial brines often contain flavorants. However, particulates are not common, as they can clog injection needles or cake on tumblers. “In manufacturing, marinating is all about binding water in the food system,” says Jonas. “Adding flavor or visual seasoning is secondary, or not even a priority.”

The exception is some of the vacuum- packed, flavored, uncooked meats that are sold in the fresh-meat case, like Always Tender™ pork and beef products from Hormel Foods, Austin, MN. The products are described as “containing up to 30% of a patented flavor solution.” Unlike bottled liquid marinades, this flavor solution also contains sodium phosphate, which is unique to industrial marinades.

Phosphates are the sodium or potassium salts of phosphoric acid, which is prepared from naturally occurring phosphorus mineral deposits. Three main phosphate groups are used in meat systems: diphosphates, triphosphates and polyphosphates. These have different properties relating to pH, solubility and buffering capacity. Often, blends of the three help achieve the properties required for a specific application. Phosphates aid moisture retention during cooking and freeze/thaw. Retaining moisture subsequently results in improved flavor and texture.

The Hormel products are also described as being coated with a sauce based on water, corn starch and xanthan gum. The sauce is more for visual appeal than anything else. After all, consumers do taste with their eyes. However, it is the marinade that has penetrated the protein that delivers the flavor. And, at “up to 30%,” it also delivers the profits.

Phosphates modify the food’s own stabilizing and binding properties. They do not bind water themselves. “Phosphate is the primary functional ingredient to increase moisture, tenderness and improve yield,” says Russell. “Gums and starches can be used in addition to phosphates to improve product quality.”

Hydrocolloids will reduce moisture loss by picking up the water expelled from the food, then swelling and trapping it in the structure. Phosphates, on the other hand, allow the food’s proteins to retain their naturally present water, thus promoting succulence and the retention of soluble proteins and minerals. Phosphates work with salt synergistically to modify muscle fibers by promoting swelling. In addition, they change the structure of protein. During rigor mortis, certain muscle components change. Actomyosin forms from myosin and actin, which reduces water retention. Simply, dead muscle dries out. The addition of phosphates inhibits actomyosin formation. This helps hold water in the system. This magic ingredient is restricted by USDA to a concentration of 0.5% in all final products.

How brines work 

To understand how a simple solution of salt and water makes foods moister, it is important to understand the composition of high-protein foods. A typical muscle cell is a long, cylindrical fiber of protein (20% to 25%) and water (74% to 76%) that contains other dissolved substances. All of this is encased in a membrane that allows water molecules to pass in and out. Of the total water, not more than 5% is bound directly to hydrophilic groups on the proteins. The rest of the roughly 95% is held by capillary forces between the thick and thin filaments of the protein.

When the cell is bathed in a brine that has even more free water molecules per cubic inch than it has, nature tries to even things up by forcing free water through the membrane from where the molecules are more plentiful —in the brine—to where they are less plentiful—inside the muscle cell. Osmosis occurs, and a juicer piece of food results.

The salt, which is also very concentrated in the brine and almost undetectable inside the muscle cell, wants to get inside the muscle cell by diffusing through the membrane. Salt makes the food more flavorful. The salt that diffuses into the muscle causes protein strands to denature. The tightly wound proteins unwind and get tangled together. When heated, the proteins form a matrix that traps water molecules and holds onto them tightly during cooking. The salt and water may also contain seasonings and spices that penetrate into the protein.

Into the brine 

Though brine works on many types of foods, the process is most effective with leaner, relatively flavorless meats. Lean meats, such as chicken, pork, turkey, fish and shrimp, are good foods to brine.

Generally, marinade temperatures should be as low as possible. All ingredients must be incorporated properly into the solution. How a marinade is best incorporated is based on product size and desired function of the marinade. The application method can impact the intensity of the flavor and the texture of the final, cooked product.

The oldest and simplest method of industrial brining is to soak the food in the solution. However, this method requires too much time and storage space to be practical in most commercial operations. Instead, equipment engineers have developed brining systems to accelerate the marinating process. One method involves injecting brine under pressure directly into food through needles.

Injection systems manage the addition of brine by three variables: pump pressure, product movement per stroke (needles going up and down) and strokes per minute. These three variables are adjusted to accommodate the different products, to optimize the amount of time the needle is in the product and the amount of solution pumped into it. Different products also use different types of needles. For example, poultry products use thinner needles than hams.

Food safety is always a priority. Needle marinating is generally performed under refrigeration temperatures and multistage filters, or ultraviolet radiation is incorporated to prevent bacteria growth in the brine.

Needle-injection marinating limits particle inclusion. Particulates must be small enough to be effectively injected via needle. The major advantage of injection brining is that the needles distribute the marinating ingredients evenly throughout the product.

Other brining options also exist. “Injection marinades are generally used for products of greater size and mass,” says Russell. “Vacuum tumbling, on the other hand, works very well with smaller dices, cubes and meat chunks, as well as chicken breasts, tenders and some shrimp and seafood. Application of vacuum opens up meat fibers and allows better penetration of the marinade. The tumbling action provides some aggressive massaging to enhance penetration, and it ensures uniform distribution of the marinade.”

Other secret ingredients 

Phosphates help improve the proteins’ effectiveness to retain naturally present water. Adding ingredients such as carrageenan helps bind and retain the large amount of water osmotically introduced into the muscle, making it softer and juicier.

Carrageenan, a family of carbohydrates extracted from red seaweed, is common in industrial marinade as it can create a gel in the water phase of meat and poultry. Carrageenan is a high-molecular-weight polysaccharide made up of repeating galactose units and 3,6 anhydrogalactose (3,6- AG), both sulfated and nonsulfated, joined by alternating alpha 1-3 and beta 1-4 glycosidic linkages. There are three types of carrageenan that find application in food: iota, kappa and lambda. Their primary differences are the number and position of the ester sulfate groups on the repeating galactose units. Higher levels of ester sulfate lower the solubility temperature of the carrageenan and produce lower-strength gels, or contribute to gel inhibition, as is the case with lambda carrageenan, which does not produce a gel.

“Both iota and kappa carrageenan are used in meat and poultry items at usage levels ranging from 0.3% to 0.5%,” says James Lamkey, global technical manager for meat applications, FMC BioPolymer, Philadelphia. “Gels prepared with carrageenan are thermally reversible. The gels will become fluid when heated above the gels’ melting point and will reset into a gel when cooled, with minimal loss of the original gel strength. Thus, when a muscle food is cooked, the carrageenan gel solubilizes, but stays in the food, making it moist. With leftovers, the gel resets when cooled. It keeps the water in the food. This is a very important attribute for prepared foods that are intended for heat-and-serve at home.”

They can provide other benefits, as well. “Carrageenans can provide high water binding, improved texture and appearance, better slice-ability, and increased yield,” says Jonas. “At the same time, they ensure low syneresis and a minimal drip loss during storage. Carrageenans are also flexible. They can be incorporated into meat, poultry and seafood by multi-needle injection, tumbling or a combination of the two.” Differences exist between kappa and iota gels. “Kappa provides structural rigidity, with less moisture control,” says Jonas. “Too high of levels can cause striation in the products. Straight iota feels like slippery water. It produces a soft gel that makes the end product very juicy. When using iota carrageenan, one can often reduce the amount of phosphates and salts in the brine.”

Jonas notes that P.L. Thomas & Co. developed a new cold-soluble and cold-gelling iota carrageenan especially for improving yield and quality of meat poultry and seafood products for fresh or frozen distribution. When used in a brine at a concentration of 0.2% to 0.4%, he notes that it “provides a semi-liquid and thixotropic gel that is suitable for injection and for providing a 15% to 50% weight gain.”

Starches, too, can improve the texture and processing conditions of whole muscle, chunked and formed, emulsified, and coarse-ground meat and poultry products, while also increasing yield—particularly cook yield. For example, a modified potato starch added to turkey-breast brine in order to achieve a level of 2% starch in the turkey provides a comparable total-water uptake to a simple salt-phosphate solution.

However, after freeze/thaw and cooking, the starch brine has about a 15% higher yield. To the consumer, this equates to a moister, juicier turkey breast. Taste and tenderness... It’s so easy, even “Dummies” can do it!

Donna Berry, president of Chicago-based Dairy & Food Communications, Inc., a network of professionals in business-to-business technical and trade communications, has been writing about product development and marketing for 11 years. Prior to that, she worked for Kraft Foods in the natural-cheese division. She has a B.S. in Food Science from the University of Illinois in Urbana-Champaign. She can be reached at

[email protected].